A prerequisite for any attempt to control the spread by shipping of introduced marine pest species in Australian waters is a knowledge of the current distribution and abundance of exotic species in Australian ports. However, until very recently this information base had been lacking for most Australian ports. An Australian port survey program was therefore commenced as a joint initiative of the Australian Association of Port and Marine Authorities (AAPMA), the CSIRO's Centre for Research on Introduced Marine Pests (CRIMP), and a variety of individual state and territory agencies. This program is supported by the Australian Ballast Water Management Advisory Council (ABWMAC), and seeks to redress the lack of knowledge about the occurrence of exotic species in Australian ports and to provide a consistent basis on which the introduced species status of individual ports can be assessed.

Contents

Summary and Review of Existing Information - A survey of marine life was carried out in the port area. This also provides background information about introduced marine life.

Sampling and Survey Methods - Information about how the survey was undertaken.

Survey Results - The samples of fauna and flora collected, taken mainly from pile scrapings and benthic sediment cores, comprised 13 major animal and plant groups. These groups included the dinoflagellates, macroalgae, poriferans, hydrozoans, anthozoans, polychaetes, several phyla of "other worms", crustaceans, molluscs, bryozoans, echinoderms, chordates and fishes.

Bird Sightings - A list of native and introduced birds that have been sighted around Port Kembla Harbour.

Environmental Data - A summary of the environmental conditions at each of the sampling sites. eg. temperature, visibility, salinity.

Potential Impacts of Introduced Species - The effects that these species can have on the environment.

Effects of Port Practices and the Environment on the Survival of Introduced Species - The effects of the local environment on introduced and native marine life.

Recommendations - What management, monitoring and prevention can be done to improve marine life.

References - Resources and further reading.

Appendices - contains a Schedule of Introduced Species, information on Ballast Water Activity at the Berths in Port Kembla, Sampling Procedures, Shipping Information Proforma, the Code of Practice for in-water Hull Cleaning and Maintenance.

Port surveys designed to identify all exotic species present will inevitably be subject to scientific, logistic and cost constraints that will limit both their taxonomic and spatial scope. Recognition of these constraints has led to the adoption of a targeted approach, which concentrates on a known group of introduced and potentially invasive species and provides a cost-effective approach to the collection of baseline data for all ports studied. These surveys are designed to determine the distributions and abundances of a range of target species in each port. These species are listed in Appendix 1, and comprise: those species listed on the ABWMAC schedule of target introduced marine pest species; a group of species which are major pests in overseas ports and which, on the basis of their invasive history and projected shipping movements, might be expected to colonise and pose a threat to Australian ports; and those known exotic species present in Australian waters that currently are not assigned pest status.

These targeted surveys will also identify species of uncertain status (endemic or introduced) that are abundant in a port and/or are likely to become major pest species. Where appropriate, a component of the port survey may include a local public awareness program designed to collect any available information that might indicate the presence of introduced species in the port and adjacent areas, the approximate dates of any introductions, and their potential impacts on native marine communities.

This report details the results in relation to the search for targeted ABWMAC pest species during an introduced species survey of Port Kembla, New South Wales, carried out between 8 and 18 May 2000. This survey was undertaken as part of the broader AAPMA/CRIMP port survey initiative by staff of NSW Fisheries assisted by CRIMP staff. The Port Kembla Port Corporation funded the survey and the preparation of this report, with assistance from the Maritime Assets Division of the NSW Waterways Authority and significant in-kind contributions from NSW Fisheries.

Summary and review of Existing Information

Port Kembla is located about 85 kilometres by road to the south of the city of Sydney, on the south coast of New South Wales at around latitude 34º 28' S, longitude 150º 54' E. The port is a man-made harbour, which was initially developed around the shipping needs of the local coal industry. Over the past century, Port Kembla has developed to become the second largest coal exporting port in New South Wales.

A survey for introduced marine species was carried out in the port area and around the adjacent ocean coastline between 8 and 18 May 2000. This survey focused on habitats that were likely to be colonised by introduced species and generally followed the sampling protocols developed for the National Australian Ports Surveys by the CSIRO's Centre for Research on Introduced Marine Pests (CRIMP).

Previous known introductions to Port Kembla include the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium sp. and two fish species, the yellowfin goby Acanthogobius flavimanus and the striped goby Tridentiger trigonocephalus. Alexandrium spp. and Tridentiger trigonocephalus were again collected during the present survey. 

Two taxa of toxic dinoflagellates, Alexandrium sp. (catenella type) and Alexandrium ostenfeldii/peruvianum, were the only Australian Ballast Water Management Advisory Council (ABWMAC) target introduced marine pest species collected during the present survey. This genus of dinoflagellates, which generally occurs encysted in the bottom sediments, has been commonly recorded from a number of coastal bays and estuaries (mainly ports) in south-eastern Australia. Blooms of such dinoflagellates in the water column produce neurotoxins, which may not only cause fish kills, but can also accumulate in shellfish and, being toxic to humans, may therefore affect oyster growing and other aquaculture industries (though no such industries are present in or around Port Kembla). Alexandrium cysts, however, were not found to be abundant in Port Kembla, and no toxic dinoflagellate blooms have previously been recorded there. 

Apart from the above two dinoflagellates, a total of 47 other introduced (33) and cryptogenic (i.e. of unknown origin) (14) species were also recorded from the port during the present survey. These introduced species are generally recognised as having been transferred to Australia in both historic and modern times, most probably via ships' ballast water discharge and/or hull fouling, but are not listed as 'pest species' which are known to pose any significant economic or environmental threats in this area. 

• The additional 33 introduced species found in Port Kembla included the following:
• · 1 species of hydrozoan (Halecium delicatulum), 
•  4 species of polychaetes (Boccardia chilensis, Boccardia proboscidea, Hydroides dirampha and Hydroides ezoensis), 
• 8 species of crustaceans (Megabalanus rosa, Cirolana harfordi, Paracerceis sculpta, Sphaeroma walkeri, Corophium acutum, Paradexamine pacifica, Liljeborgia c.f. dellavallei and Elasmopus rapax), 
• 15 species of bryozoans (Amathia sp., Bowerbankia sp., Bugula dentata, Bugula flabellata, Bugula neritina, Bugula stolonifera, Cryptosula pallasiana, Schizoporella errata, Schizoporella sp. A, Schizoporella sp. B, Schizoporella sp. C, Schizoporella unicornis, Tricellaria occidentalis, Watersipora arcuata and Watersipora subtorquata), 
• 3 species of ascidians (Styela plicata, Botryllus schlosseri and Ciona intestinalis), and
• 2 species of fishes (Tridentiger trigonocephalus and Acentrogobius pflaumi). 

The 14 cryptogenic species found included the following: 

• 1 species of alga (Caulerpa filiformis), 
• 4 species of hydrozoans (Bougainvillia macloviana, Sarsia eximia, Clytia sp. and Clytia hemisphaerica), 
• 1 species of anthozoan (Culicia c.f. tenella)
• 1 species of polyclad worm (Enatiid sp.1), 
• 5 species of crustaceans (Balanus amphitrite, Megabalanus tintinnabulum, Megabalnus zebra, Caprella equilibra and Stenothoe valida), 
• 1 species of mollusc (Mytilus galloprovincialis), and 
• 1 species of bryozoan (Calyptotheca sp.).

Overall, and apart from the two toxic dinoflagellates (Alexandrium spp.) identified from the port, from the results of this survey Port Kembla would appear to be otherwise free of ABWMAC listed target introduced marine pest species. In the light of the above, it is recommended that Alexandrium be periodically monitored in both the water column and sediments of the port. 

The data collected during this survey provide the information necessary to fulfil the requirements of the Australian Quarantine Inspection Service's (AQIS) Decision Support System in relation to the need or otherwise for future ballast water controls on shipping using this port.

Existing Biological Information

Many of the marine pest introductions which have so far occurred in Australian ports have been attributed to ballast water, which is discharged from ships arriving from both overseas and other infected Australian ports. When such visiting ships take on cargo, ballast water is often discharged, which can contain numerous organisms originating from those ports visited previously (Carlton 1985). These organisms may settle and reproduce in the new port environment, some of them causing concern in relation to their associated dangers to human health, aquaculture and the aquatic environment in general (Anon. 1998b). As well as living in ballast water (and ballast sediments), foreign organisms also often grow on ships' hulls, and if the hulls are cleaned while in port, these introduced marine organisms also have the potential to settle there and become pests. 
Few studies have previously been undertaken specifically on the flora and fauna of the Port Kembla region. In 1976, however, an environmental impact statement considering the effects of the coal loader and stockpiling extensions was carried out. This study was only concentrated on the area immediately surrounding the coal loading facility. Mainly terrestrial animals and plants were mentioned. This impact statement noted that "plant growth within the peninsula was limited to grasses and a few stunted shrubs", and that no information was available on the effects of coal dust on Australian plants. It was also stated that there were "no birds or animals with a permanent habitat in the area", except for "a few seagulls resting on the foreshore when small fish enter the harbour areas". 

In 1977 a survey was carried out by Marine Science & Ecology (1978) of the biota in Port Kembla Harbour. The results of this survey determined that the lower reaches of Allans Creek and most harbour structures were depauperate in benthic organisms.

In 1982, Moran and Grant (1993) carried out a study to determine the effects of polluted water on the settlement of larvae of four fouling organisms in Port Kembla. These organisms included four bryozoans, Bugula avicularia, Bugula neritina, Watersipora arcuata and Tricellaria porteri, and a sepulid worm, Galeolaria caespitosa. Results indicated that the settlement of larvae of Bugula neritina and Tricellaria porteri was reduced, while the settlement of Watersipora arcuata and Galeolaria caespitosa larvae was not affected by the pollution.

A general review of introduced organisms present in Australian marine waters was presented by Pollard and Hutchings (1990a,b). Pollard and Hutchings (1990a) stated that the yellowfin goby (Acanthogobius flavimanus) probably arrived in various Australian ports, including Port Kembla, in ballast water from Japanese ships. This report also noted that the striped goby (Tridentiger trigonocephalus) was abundant in Port Kembla, having been identified from fish samples collected under a coal loader berth. This latter fish species probably also arrived in Australian waters via the ballast water of ships from Japan.

Jones (1991) also reviewed marine organisms which had been transported to Australia in ships' ballast water. This report again mentioned both the yellowfin goby and the striped goby as occurring in Port Kembla.

An environmental study was carried out in 1991 for BHP Steel Slab and Plate Products Division (Marine Science & Ecology and Coastal Environmental Consultants Pty Ltd 1992). This study was undertaken in order to assess the physical processes and biological ecosystem present in the harbour. The biological component of the study was focused on the Inner Harbour, from which 87 fish species from 51 families, as well as large numbers of invertebrates belonging to only a few species, were recorded. The introduced striped goby Tridentiger trigonocephalus was again recorded during this survey. Invertebrate species found were largely dominated by polychaete worms. Sampling was also carried out for microscopic organisms (plankton) in the water column. Overall, the conclusion from this study was that the biological communities in the harbours at Port Kembla were typically estuarine, with a reduced diversity of species.

In 1993 a survey was carried out by the Ecology Lab Pty Ltd to determine if toxic dinoflagellates were present in Port Jackson, Botany Bay and Port Kembla. However, no toxic dinoflagellates were detected in the samples collected from six sites in Port Kembla during this study (Ecology Lab Pty Ltd 1993).

In 1995 a study of Allans Creek was also carried out by Marine Science & Ecology and Coastal Environmental Consultants Pty Ltd (1996) for BHP Steel. The Allans Creek system was studied because it carries runoff from the surrounding catchment, as well as cooling and wastewater from the steelworks. From the results of this study a total of 13 species of fish were found to be present, with no introduced species being recorded. Invertebrates recorded included four species of crabs and many species of polychaete worms. Results of a zooplankton survey showed a dominance of larval crabs of various species. 

Sampling and Survey Methods

The survey protocols used were designed to maximise the likelihood that exotic species present in the port would be detected (see Appendix 3). Sampling was concentrated on habitats and sites in Port Kembla and adjacent coastal areas that were most likely to have been colonised by species associated with recognised transport vectors (i.e. shipping, through both hull fouling and ballast water discharge).

The types of habitats selected for sampling (in priority order) were:

·         active berth structures,

·         existing jetty structures,

·         proposed port improvement areas,

·         known deballasting areas,

·         breakwaters,

·         channel markers or anchorage buoys, and

·         other representative habitats in and around the port.

Sampling methods were selected to ensure a comprehensive coverage of habitat types and were intended to provide presence/absence information and/or semi-quantitative indices of abundance only. As many of the target species were likely to be rare, sampling was concentrated on maximising coverage within a site, with minimal sample replication. Replicate sampling was only undertaken in situations where small-scale heterogeneity was likely to influence detection of target species. The sampling methods used, habitats sampled and taxa targeted are summarised in Table 3.1.  Detailed descriptions of the existing standard temperate port sampling procedures are outlined in the protocol of Hewitt and Martin (1996) and summarised in Appendix 3.

Sampling was distributed over three main areas, including:

·         Open Coast

·         Outer Harbour

·         Inner Harbour

Sampling methods employed in each of these areas and details of the sampling sites are summarised in Table 3.2, and their locations shown in Figure 3.2. Sampling was most intense in the immediate port area, and focused on habitats on and around wharf piles and the adjacent soft bottom sediments. Visual searches and transects, quadrat scraping, video transects, still photography and coring were undertaken by snorkel or scuba divers; and shore surveys, beach seining, trapping and plankton sampling were carried out from the shore, research vessels or wharves.

The table below shows:

Summary of sampling methods used, habitats sampled and target taxa - Port Kembla survey May 2000.

  Sampling was undertaken between 8 and 18 May 2000. The survey fieldwork was carried out as a joint operation between NSW Fisheries’ Conservation Ecology Research Group supervised by Dr David Pollard, and contracted CRIMP staff led by Dr Chad Hewitt.  Initial sorting and preservation were carried out immediately after sampling. 

Further sorting to the level of phylum or class was carried out by Anisul Afsar at the NSW Fisheries Centre, Cronulla. After sorting, the samples were then sent to individual specialist taxonomists throughout Australia and New Zealand to be identified to species level where possible. The analysis and write up of the results and report preparation were supervised and coordinated by Dr D. Pollard of NSW Fisheries.

 
Sampling sites in and around Port Kembla

Survey Results

The samples of fauna and flora collected, taken mainly from pile scrapings and benthic sediment cores, comprised 13 major animal and plant groups. These groups included the dinoflagellates, macroalgae, poriferans, hydrozoans, anthozoans, polychaetes, several phyla of "other worms", crustaceans, molluscs, bryozoans, echinoderms, chordates and fishes. Scientific (genus and species) names in bold italics at first substantive mention in the text indicate those introduced or cryptogenic (i.e. of unknown origin) species found or known to occur in Port Kembla.

Dinoflagellates

The dinoflagellates are a group of microalgae belonging to the Kingdom Protista, which comprises a wide variety of single celled microorganisms. 

Many species of dinoflagellates occur in Australian waters, and these show extreme variation in size and shape. Around 60 of these species can survive for several years as sedentary cysts, which are very different from their motile free swimming forms (Edgar 2000). This may be an adaptation for surviving under unfavourable environmental conditions, and definite identification of some cysts to species cannot be readily undertaken without germinating the cyst into its motile form. 

It is these "cyst-forming" dinoflagellate species which are often known for their negative environmental effects. Under suitable conditions they may multiply rapidly to produce "blooms". These blooms can cause the infamous "red tides". Oxygen depletion and/or toxins produced during these blooms may lead to the destruction of marine life over large areas (Edgar 2000). These toxins may concentrate in filter-feeding invertebrates, such as mussels and oysters. Sometimes they may have little direct effect on the host invertebrates, but if the latter are consumed by humans or other vertebrate predators, these toxins can be potentially fatal (Edgar 2000, Paxinos 2000). The cysts of these toxic dinoflagellates usually accumulate and lie dormant in soft bottom sediments until disturbed.

 Dr Steve Brett and Dr David Hill of Microalgal Services, Melbourne, undertook analysis of the small sediment core and phytoplankton net samples collected during the present survey. 

Analyses of the sediment cores revealed the presence of low levels of Alexandrium cysts, similar in appearance to Alexandrium 'catenella type' cysts, which was the only ABWMAC listed pest species recorded from Port Kembla during the survey. 

Alexandrium catenella is one of several known species of toxic dinoflagellates which have been found in Australian waters. Other known species include Alexandrium minutum, Alexandrium tamarense and Gymnodinium catenatum (Furlani 1996). All of these species are designated ABWMAC pests, and are highly toxic. They can all pose a threat to human health through the consumption of contaminated shellfish after toxic blooms. Paralytic shellfish poisoning due to toxic dinoflagellates has only occurred in Australia since the 1980s (Ecology Lab 1993). The first outbreaks were caused by Gymnodinium catenatum in Hobart, by Alexandrium catenella in Melbourne and by Alexandrium minutum in Adelaide.
Alexandrium catenella was previously known from coastal estuaries and embayments from the Hawkesbury River, NSW, south to Port Phillip Bay, Victoria (Hallegraeff et al. 1991). However, Newcastle has more recently been confirmed to be the most northerly extreme of its known Australian distribution (CSIRO Marine Research 1998). 

In southern Australia, blooms of A. catenella most usually occur for about two to four weeks in the warmer months between December and April. These blooms produce potent neurotoxins which accumulate in shellfish and may result in Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) in humans (Furlani 1996). If dredging occurs, and cysts are disturbed and their dispersal thus enhanced, there is a possibility of toxic blooms occurring. To date, however, there is no evidence of any such toxic blooms having occurred in Port Kembla. 

Alexandrium catenella occurs worldwide in temperate waters. Although it is not known if it was present in Australian waters prior to European settlement, there is no evidence to suggest that PSP had previously occurred in Australian shellfish from any Aboriginal history or customary story. Reports of PSP due to this species in the more recent past have, however, been recorded from Bateman's Bay in 1935, Port Hacking in the 1940s, and from Port Phillip Bay in 1986 (Furlani 1996).

Results from the small benthic core ("dinocore") sampling for dinoflagellates in Port Kembla are presented in Table 4.2.1.1. Of the 24 sites sampled for marine flora and fauna in the Outer and Inner Harbours during this survey, small benthic dinocore samples were collected from 16 sites (see Table 3.2). At 7 of these sites, dinocore samples were also collected 50 metres away as well as at the immediate site. These latter sites included the Spoil Ground (SGO), Inflammable Liquids Berth (ILB), Mid Port (Outer Harbour) (MPO), Number 1 Products Wharf (PW1), Grain Berth (GBI), ANL Roll-on Roll-off Berth (eastern) (ERR) and No 2 (Old) Coal Berth (OCB). No small benthic dinocore samples were collected from the Open Coast sites.

The cysts of a total of 17 dinoflagellate species were identified in the sediment cores. Alexandrium 'catenella type' cysts were reported from sites SGO (3.9% of total cysts present), Jetty 6 (J6O) (4.7%), MPO (0.9%), Discharge Wharf 2 (DW2) (5.6%), BHP Roll-on Roll-off Berth (western) (WRR) (1.9%), GBI (2.7% at the immediate site and 1.3% 50 metres out), ERR (0.9%), OCB (1.8%) and Mid Port in the Inner Harbour (MPI) (0.8%). While cyst numbers were relatively low, the presence of Alexandrium cysts in the sediments of Port Kembla raises the possibility of future potentially toxic blooms. Collection of additional samples may enable the germination and thus unequivocal identification of the Alexandrium species present, and also provide further understanding of cyst distribution and abundance within Port Kembla (S. Brett, pers. comm.). Alexandrium 'catenella type' cysts were also present in the samples collected during the Botany Bay introduced marine pests survey (Pollard and Pethebridge 2000).

Phytoplankton net sampling for dinoflagellates in the water column was also undertaken during this survey. Samples were collected by vertical tows of a hand deployed 20 mm mesh plankton net according to the protocol outlined in Appendix 3. Samples were taken at the Inner Harbour Mid Port (MPI) and Outer Harbour Mid Port (MPO) sites. Low numbers of Alexandrium sp. (catenella type) cells were found in one of the phytoplankton samples from the Inner Harbour. Another species of this genus, Alexandrium ostenfeldii/peruvianum, was also found in phytoplankton samples from both the Inner and Outer Harbours. The toxicity of this latter species is not well known, although in New Zealand it has been found to have variable toxicity (S. Brett, pers. comm.).

Macroalgae

The term macroalgae refers to the main group of primarily attached macroscopic marine plants, or seaweeds, which inhabit the coastal shallows and deeper sunlit regions of the continental shelf.

Seaweeds, together with seagrasses, are the major primary producers in inshore coastal regions, and kelp beds can far exceed the richest agricultural lands in terms of plant material produced annually (Christianson et al. 1981). Macroscopic algae, together with seagrasses and microscopic algae (mainly phytoplankton), form the basis of marine and estuarine food chains.

Macroalgae are classified into three main groups: the Chlorophyta, or green algae; the Phaeophyta, or brown algae; and the Rhodophyta, or red algae. Around 113 species of green algae (Millar and Kraft 1994a), 140 species of brown algae (Millar and Kraft 1994b) and 400 species of red algae (Millar and Kraft 1993) are known to occur in eastern Australian waters.

The macroalgae samples collected from Port Kembla were sent to Dr Allan Millar at the National Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, for identification. A total of 70 species were identified from 30 families, with no confirmed introduced species being found (see Table 4.2.2). These included 47 species of red algae, 16 species of brown algae and 6 species of green algae. Also included in the samples was one species of seagrass, Halophila ovalis, from the angiosperm family Hydrocharitaceae. Many of those species identified are common to New South Wales and southern Australia in general, and many are "cosmopolitan", being common worldwide.

Most of the algae collected came from qualitative samples, with some coming from pile scraping samples, and a few from beach wrack surveys. The Boat Harbour site in Wollongong Harbour (WHH) contained the largest number of species, comprising 40 out of the 72 species found. The algal species from this site were all found in qualitative samples. Algal species were also quite common at other open coastal sites, such as the Big Island (BGI) (13 spp.), Eastern Breakwater (EBO) (9 spp.), Southern Sandy Shore (SSS) (4 spp.), and Wollongong Harbour Boat Basin (WHB) (8 spp.) sites. In the Outer Harbour, algal species were found at the Eastern Breakwater (EBI) (4 spp.), Jetty 4 (J4O) (10 spp.), Jetty 3 (J3O) (7 spp.), Spoil Grounds (SGO) (1 sp.), Jetty 6 (J6O) (2 spp.), Inflammable Liquids Berth (ILB) (7 spp.) and Northern Breakwater (NBI) (4 spp.) sites. In the Inner Harbour, algal species were found at the No. 1 Products Wharf (PW1) (1 sp.), No. 2 Products Wharf (PW2) (3 spp.), Multi-Purpose Berth (MPB) (1sp.), Tom Thumb Road Bridge (B1I) (9 spp.) and ANL Roll-on Roll-off Berth (eastern) (ERR) (1 sp.) sites.

Caulerpa filiformis was the single algal species from the Port Kembla samples identified as possibly being cryptogenic in origin. This chlorophyte species is easily recognised by its bright green colour and its "simple, flattened, strap-like shape" (Edgar 2000). It was first recorded in Australia in 1923, and since then has proliferated to become a dominant plant on intertidal rock platforms in the Sydney area (Edgar 2000). Local scientists initially thought it was introduced from South Africa. However, recent genetic studies (Pillmann et al. 1997) have shown that the local C. filiformis differs from the South African form and that the species is probably native to both countries (i.e. it is probably not an introduced species in Australia). The recent perceived proliferation of this species in the Sydney area may be due to its ability to utlilise increased nutrient loadings better than other related algae. In Australian waters it occurs along the central NSW coast from south of Wollongong (including Port Kembla), around the Sydney area, and northwards to Port Stephens (Edgar 2000; D. Pollard and R. Pethebridge, pers. obs.). 

Around Port Kembla, Caulerpa filiformis was found at two sites on the open coast, in qualitative samples collected at the Fisherman's Beach (Southern Sandy Shore) (SSS) and Wollongong Harbour Boat Harbour (WHH) sites. It was not found in either the Outer or Inner Harbours. This species was also collected during the Botany Bay introduced marine pests survey during 1998 (Pollard and Pethebridge 2000). 

Poriferans

The Phylum Porifera, or sponges, includes about 6000 marine and 100 freshwater species. Nearly 1000 of these species occur in southern Australia (Edgar 2000). 

Sponges occur anywhere there is a suitable substratum, such as on artificial substrates, rocks, shells, submerged timber, coral, sand or mud.  They survive best where there is a strong current or wave action, because they are filter feeders.  They often tend to be more dominant in caves and deeper water, and less dominant in shallow waters where the faster growing seaweeds tend to dominate (Edgar 2000).  Carnivorous animals generally avoid sponges as prey because of their sharp spicules and toxic chemicals.

Professor Pat Bergquist, from the University of Auckland, New Zealand, identified the sponges collected from Port Kembla.  These included a total of 32 species from 18 families, which are listed in table 4.2.3. None of the species found are considered to be introduced or cryptogenic.

Hydrozoans

The Class Hydrozoa belongs to the Phylum Coelenterata, the cnidarians, which includes the hydras, jellyfishes, sea anemones and corals (Barnes 1987). Marine hydrozoans, or hydroids, are generally small colonial branching forms, which are often plant-like in appearance, and are therefore not commonly recognised or well known, often being casually dismissed as "seaweeds". However, around 2700 species exist (Barnes 1987), and they are most commonly found attached to wharf pilings, rocks and shells.

Dr Jeanette Watson of the Hydrozoan Research Laboratory, Melbourne, identified the hydrozoans from the present study. A total of fifteen species from eleven families were identified (see Table 4.2.4). These species included six species from the order Anthoathecatae and nine species from the order Leptothecatae.

Most of the hydroids found in Port Kembla were collected from wharf pile scrapings, often attached to worm tubes. According to Dr Watson, Port Kembla Harbour is not a good habitat for hydrozoans, because the harbour is "too enclosed and lacks circulation". Therefore, there is a relatively low number of species, most of which are present in low abundances. 

Halecium vasiforme is an introduced hydrozoan collected taken from the Port Kembla samples. This species was previously known from Japan, and is possibly a new record for Australia. Only two small infertile colonies of the species were collected, from the No 1 (Bulk) Coal Berth (BCB) and the No 2 (Old) Coal Berth (OCB) sites in the Inner Harbour.
A second species, Clytia sp. 1, could possibly be introduced. However, because species of the genus Clytia are a difficult to identify, no positive identification to the species level was possible. Therefore, for the purposes of this survey, the form collected is considered as cryptogenic. It could be an undescribed species, or possibly Clytia delicata, which is known from the Phillipines and Japan. There was a high abundance of this species in samples collected from various sites in Port Kembla. It was found in wharf pile scraping samples collected from the No 3 Jetty (J3O) and No 6 Jetty (J6O) sites in the Outer Harbour, and from the No 1 Products Wharf (PW1), No 2 Discharge Wharf (DW2), BHP Roll-on Roll-off Berth (western) (WRR), No 2 Products Wharf (PW2), BCB and OCB sites in the Inner Harbour. 

Three other cryptogenic species were also collected from Port Kembla. These were Clytia hemisphaerica, Bougainvillia macloviana and Sarsia eximia. 

Clytia hemisphaerica is a cosmopolitan species which is abundant in Australian coastal waters. Specimens of this species were found in moderate abundances in pile scraping samples collected from the J6O and PW2 sites. It was also found in qualitative samples collected from the Western Revetment Wall (WRW) and PW1 sites.

Bougainvillia macloviana is known from New Zealand, South Africa and other areas in the Southern Ocean region. This species was common in samples collected during this survey. It was collected from wharf pile scraping samples taken from the J3O, J6O, DW2 and OCB sites. It was also collected from qualitative samples taken at the Multi-Purpose Berth (MPB) site. 

Sarsia eximia is a cosmopolitan species which is common in coastal waters of southern Australia. Only one fertile colony was found, in a qualitative sample collected at the PW1 site.

Anthozoans

The anthozoans comprise the anemones, the hard and soft corals and the sea pens, and can occur as either solitary polyps or colonies of polyps (Edgar 2000, Barnes 1987). 
The scleractinians, or hexacorals, are hard or stony corals belonging to the Class Anthozoa. The living polyps of hexacorals are encased inside a hard calcareous skeleton, and they include the reef building corals which are most common in tropical waters. Non-reef building forms also frequently occur in more temperate regions, such as at Port Kembla.

A total of 63 samples of hexacorals were collected during the Port Kembla survey, and these were initially examined by D. Pollard at the NSW Fisheries Centre, Cronulla. From this examination, it appeared that all of the specimens were of the same type and similar to Culicia tenella. Table 4.2.5 lists the sites at which these species were collected. 
These samples were subsequently sent to Dr Peter Harrison of Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, for confirmation of their identification. After a close examination and study of reference material, he concluded that the specimens were all Culicia c.f. tenella, most probably being the species C. tenella.

Culicia tenella is a relatively common species in temperate Australian waters, which can be found from Perth in Western Australia to the Solitary Islands in NSW, including around Tasmania (Edgar 2000). 

Polychaetes

The polychaete worms comprise the largest class of the annelid (or segmented) worms, with most species being marine. Polychaetes often dominate soft sediments in terms of both their abundance and numbers of species present.

Few previous studies have emphasised introduced polychaetes in Australian waters. A study by Hutchings et al. (1989) identified introduced species from various other invertebrate groups in Twofold Bay, New South Wales, but mentioned no polychaetes. Records from the Australian Museum indicate a list of eight species which have been confirmed as introduced, or are likely to have been introduced, to Australian waters. These species include Neanthes succinea (possibly cosmopolitan), Boccardia chilensis (probably from Chile), Pseudopolydora paucibranchiata (probably from Japan), Capitella capitata (probably from California), Sabella spallanzanii (from the Mediterranean Sea), Euchone limnicola (probably from California), Ficopomatus enigmaticus (likely to be from Europe) and Hydroides ezoensis (thought to be from Japan). Sabella spallanzanii was introduced from Europe, and has been found in large numbers in Port Phillip Bay, Victoria. It has also been found in Northern Tasmania, Gulf St Vincent near Adelaide in South Australia, and Cockburn Sound in Western Australia (CSIRO Marine Research 1997), as well as in small numbers in Twofold Bay near Eden, New South Wales (D. Pollard and B. Rankin, pers. obs.). 

The polychaetes collected from Port Kembla were examined by Dr Peggy O'Donnell from the Ecology Lab, Balgowlah, NSW. A total of four introduced species were found amongst the samples taken in Port Kembla. These included Boccardia chilensis, Boccardia proboscidea, Hydroides ezoensis and Hydroides dirampha. Boccardia chilensis and Boccardia proboscidea are both from the Family Spionidae, while Hydroides ezoensis and Hydroides dirampha are both from the Family Serpulidae. 

Boccardia chilensis, was probably introduced to Australian waters from Chile, although Australian and New Zealand specimens differ slightly. In Australia it was previously found in New South Wales and Tasmania, and is found in various habitats, including on oysters, in benthos associated with oyster leases, in rock pools, among the tubes of other polychaetes (e.g. Galeolaria caespitosa), within mollusc shells and among coralline algae. It has frequently been found in estuaries with oyster leases, including the Cooks and Georges Rivers, both of which run into Botany Bay, New South Wales.

In the Port Kembla survey, five specimens of Boccardia chilensis were found from samples collected at the No 3 Jetty (J3O) site in the Outer Harbour. In the Inner Harbour, it was found at the No 1 Products Wharf (PW1), No 2 Discharge Wharf (DW2), No 2 Products Wharf (PW2) and No 1 (Bulk) Coal Berth (BCB) sites. This species was also collected during the Botany Bay introduced marine pests survey during 1998 (Pollard and Pethebridge 2000). 

Boccardia proboscidea was first recorded in Australian waters in Werribee Lagoon in Port Phillip Bay, Victoria. At this location it was found to be very abundant, being dominant in terms of numbers over other species present. Previously this species has been recorded from North America (California, Oregon and Panama) and Japan (O'Donnell 2001).

Boccardia proboscidea has often been found among sediments which have been affected by sewage pollution, and therefore could become abundant in similar circumstances in other parts of Australia (O'Donnell 2001).
Only one specimen of this species was collected in the Port Kembla samples, from the Multi-Purpose Berth (MPB) site in the Inner Harbour. 

Hydroides ezoensis is thought to have been introduced to Australian waters from Japan. It was previously collected from pylons on Glebe Island Bridge and other sites in Sydney Harbour, NSW (O'Donnell 2001). 

At least three specimens of Hydroides ezoensis were found in the Port Kembla survey. It is possible that more specimens were present, but positive identification was hindered because many of the specimens collected from the Family Serpulidae were damaged. These specimens were found in samples collected from the PW1 and MPB sites in the Inner Harbour.

Hydroides dirampha is thought to have been introduced to Australian waters via the hull fouling of ships arriving from tropical America. This species has probably only recently been introduced, having been first recorded from the hull of the replica tall ship "Bounty", which had sailed to Australia, retracing the original ship's journey, in 1998. Dr H. ten Hove was the polychaete researcher and serpulid specialist who collected the only previously confirmed Australian record of this species, which was found in Sydney Harbour. Dr ten Hove wrote the following account in relation to the world wide occurrence of H. dirampha (O'Donnell 2001): 

"The species is fairly common in lagoonal habitats in the Caribbean (ten Hove, unpubl.). Almost all other records known to me (from literature, approx.40) are from harbours and ship's hulls. This might be an indication that the species originates from tropical American seas, and its distribution otherwise is man-made. The fact that H. dirampha is known under several specific names (benzoni, cuminghii, cuminghii var. navalis, lunulifer, malleophorus, serratus) is not as much an indication for variability, as well for the fact that its worldwide (sub) tropical distribution confused previous authors."

In the Port Kembla samples, Hydroides dirampha was the most common introduced species collected, with at least 63 specimens being found. This species has been known to form mass aggregations elsewhere, especially in lagoon habitats. The specimens collected during this survey were found at the No 4 (Bulk Liquids Berth) Jetty (J4O), J3O, No 6 Jetty (J6O) and the Inflammable Liquids Berth (ILB) in the Outer Harbour. In the Inner Harbour, it was found at the PW1, DW2, BHP Roll-on Roll-off Berth (western) (WRR), PW2, MPB, Grain Berth (GBI), BCB, and No 2 (Old) Coal Berth (OCB) sites.

Other Worms

Other groups of worms collected from the Port Kembla samples included the peanut worms (Phylum Sipuncula) and polyclad flatworms (Phylum Platyhelminthes, Order Polycladida). 
The specimens belonging to these two groups were identified by Dr Leslie Newman of Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW. A total of two species of sipunculids and eleven species of polyclads were found in pile scrapings and qualitative samples (see Table 4.2.7). None of these were identified as being introduced. One polyclad species, Enatiid sp. 1, however, is a new record for Australia. Since enatiids have previously only been recorded from North America, this species is therefore considered to be cryptogenic.

The following summary has been extracted from Dr Newman's report on these samples:
A total of 12 taxa comprising 83 individuals were identified from 31 samples from Port Kembla, NSW. Of these, the polyclad flatworms were more abundant and diverse than the sipunculids.

Only two sipunculan species were collected from Port Kembla, from 5 sites (Table 4.2.7). This is surprising since they are detrital feeders and are usually found living with encrusting masses of tubiculous polychaetes and clumps of mussels, all present on the pilings at Port Kembla. The most common species, Phascolosoma annulatum (Hutton 1879), was found in 4 samples, compared to Themiste sp., which was encountered in only one sample. The biodiversity of these worms was relatively low compared to Botany Bay (Newman, unpubl. data). 

The peanut worm, P. annulatum, is known from coastal areas around South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania (Edmunds 1980) and Green Cape, NSW (Berents, pers. comm.). Records of this species from Port Kembla represent a northern extension of this species' range. It is not known whether or not this species has been transported northwards into NSW. According to Berents (pers. comm.), there has never been a concerted study of these worms from coastal waters of NSW. Several species of Themiste, however, are known from NSW waters (Edmunds 1980).

Polyclad flatworms were relatively diverse, with a total of 10 taxa being collected from 10 separate sites (Table 4.2.7). Only one species was relatively abundant (acotylean sp. 1), with 69 individuals collected from 8 sites. The remaining species were comparatively rare, with less than 3 individuals being found at only 1 or 2 sites each.

There are only two recent studies on polyclad flatworms from temperate Australian waters (Hyman 1959; Prudhoe 1982). Hyman (1959) reported 10 species from Collaroy, north of Sydney, NSW, and Prudhoe (1982) 18 species from southern Australian coasts (mainly South Australia). However, comparisons of these specimens with known records from this region cannot be made without detailed histological examination, including examination of morphological characters from whole mounts and anatomical features of the reproductive system from serial sections. Whether or not the species found may have been introduced to Port Kembla cannot be assessed without further such taxonomic studies.

It is not surprising that the majority of polyclads collected at Port Kembla belonged to the families Stylochidae and Planoceridae. Members of these families are commonly known as 'oyster leeches' and are notorious pests of commercial bivalves and barnacles (Prudhoe 1985, Jennings & Newman 1996). It is a shame that no funding is available in Australia to study these potentially harmful worms, especially in the view of their possible accidental introduction as larvae and juveniles through ballast water discharge from overseas ports.
The unusual occurrence of an extremely rare enatiid worm is a new record for Australia, and it would be most beneficial to study these specimens in more detail. Only two enatiid species are known, both from eastern North American coasts (Prudhoe 1985). The rarity of these worms precludes any conclusions on their distribution in Australian waters.

Crustaceans

More than 40,000 species of crustaceans have been described worldwide, with probably about 100,000 species actually in existence (Edgar 2000). They occur in all marine and freshwater environments, and are often amongst the dominant groups of mobile animals in the plankton, seaweeds and sediments.

The crustaceans are divided into five classes, including the Branchiopoda (water fleas), Cirripedia (barnacles), Copepoda (copepods), Ostracoda (mussel shrimps and seed shrimps) and the Malacostraca (higher crustaceans). 

Cirripedes

The Class Cirripedia, or barnacles, comprises about 1000 species worldwide, and in the adult stage they mostly live on rocks or other hard surfaces (Edgar 2000). 
Dr Diana Jones, of the Western Australian Museum, Perth, identified the barnacles collected from Port Kembla. A total of nine species occurred, and these are listed in Table 4.2.8.1. These included six known fouling species, Balanus amphritrite, Balanus trigonus, Balanus variegatus, Megabalanus rosa, Megabalanus tintinnabulum and Megabalanus zebra. Three of these fouling species, Megabalanus rosa, Megabalanus tintinnabulum and Megabalanus zebra, have not previously been recorded from Port Kembla. The other three species, Austrobalanus imperator, Tesseropora rosea and Chthamalus antennatus, are common NSW/eastern Australian intertidal and shallow water species.

Of the fouling species, one of them is considered as introduced, while three are considered to be cryptogenic in origin. Megabalanus rosa was introduced to Australian waters from Japan, and Megabalanus amphitrite, Megabalanus tintinnabulum and Megabalnus zebra are all cryptogenic in origin, with the first two being cosmopolitan species.

Megabalanus rosa (or acorn barnacle) was probably introduced to Australia from Japan. It is also native to China and Taiwan. It was first recorded in Australia in 1981, from Port Hedland and Shark Bay in Western Australia (Furlani 1996). Previous to the Botany Bay introduced marine pests survey (Pollard and Pethebridge 2000), this species had only been recorded from Western Australia.

In the Outer Harbour, specimens of Megabalanus rosa were collected in pile scraping samples from the No 4 (BLB) Jetty (J4O), No 3 Jetty (J3O), No 6 Jetty (J6O) and Inflammable Liquids Berth (ILB) sites. They were also collected from core samples taken from the J3O site and from qualitative samples taken from the BHP Saltwater Intake (WIO) site. In the Inner Harbour, specimens of this species were collected from core samples taken at the Grain Berth (GBI) site, and from qualitative samples taken from the Tom Thumb Road Bridge (B1I) site. 

According to Dr Jones, Megabalanus rosa had previously been recorded from the north-western and central-western coasts of Western Australia, and now also from the lower east coast of Australia, with ships' hull fouling being the most likely introduction vector. The appearance of this species in Western Australia appears to be relatively recent, with the first specimens having been collected in 1981. Allen (1953) recorded M. rosa, together with M. volcano and B. albicostatus, on aircraft carriers and other vessels returning to Australia after service in Korean and Japanese waters, though it was not known where these vessels docked. Allen did not, however, record these species as becoming established on the Australian coastline. Pope (1945), in her key to the sessile barnacles found on rocks, boats, wharf piles and other installations in Port Jackson and adjacent waters, did not record M. rosa from this locality.

Malacostracans

The remainder of the crustaceans collected from Port Kembla were identified as belonging to the Class Malacostraca. The malacostracans include the familiar prawns, lobsters and crabs. Dr Gary Poore from Museum Victoria, Melbourne, identified the malacostracans collected from Port Kembla. Table 4.2.8.2 lists the taxa collected during the survey. These included representatives from the Orders Isopoda, Amphipoda, Tanaidacea, Mysidacea, Brachyura, Caridea, Anomura, Thallassinidea, Dendrobranchiata and Pycnogonida. 

The isopods are a very large group of crustaceans which includes the pill bugs and slaters, with most of the 10,000 or so described species being marine (Barnes 1987, Edgar 2000). 
The isopods collected from Port Kembla during the present survey comprised eight species from five families, and included three introduced, one cryptogenic and five endemic species. The introduced species found were Cirolana harfordi, Paracerceis sculpta and Sphaeroma walkeri. 

Cirolana harfordi (Lockington, 1877), from the Family Cirolanidae, originated from western North America, with a natural range from British Columbia to Baja California. It now also occurs in Japan, eastern Russia and Malaysia. The first Australian record was from 1972, when it was found amongst hull scrapings from a boat at Waverton in Sydney Harbour, NSW. In 1980 it was recorded in the Swan River at Fremantle in WA, and at Lorne in Victoria. In 1999 it was recorded from Port Phillip Bay in Victoria (Poore and Storey 1999).
This species tends to congregate around the lower intertidal zone. In the USA and Japan, very high densities of Cirolana harfordi have been found. It lives in sheltered positions, such as under rocks on beaches, or in the shells or tubes of dead animals (e.g. barnacles or polychaetes). In California, females produce eggs throughout the year. Cirolana harfordi is a scavenger, preying mostly on polychaetes and small crustaceans. 

So far only low densities of this species have been recorded in Australia. However, if numbers increase it may compete with several native species of cirolanids (Poore and Storey 1999). This species was only found at one site in Port Kembla, at the No 6 Jetty (J6O) site, from a pile scraping sample taken just below the surface. Therefore, it seems that this species does not pose any threat to native fauna in this port at this stage. 
Four isopod species from the Family Sphaeromatidae are known to have been introduced to Australian waters. Two of these, Paracerceis sculpta and Sphaeroma walkeri, were found during the Port Kembla survey. The other two known species not found were Paradella dianae and Sphaeroma serratum. There are about 200 species of this family which are native to Australian waters (Poore and Storey 1999). 

Paracerceis sculpta (Holmes, 1904) was introduced to Australian waters from California, with its natural range probably extending from California to Mexico. It was first recorded from Australia at Townsville, Queensland, in 1975, and is also found in Port Phillip Bay, Victoria (Poore and Storey 1999). 

This species has been well studied in its native environment. It is nocturnal, with the juvenile stages living amongst subtidal coralline algae, and the adult stages living inside the cavities of sponges in the mid-intertidal zone (Poore and Storey 1999). The species is sexually dimorphic, with three male forms being known. These are the alpha-male, beta-male and gamma-male. All three forms will mate with female forms and alpha males form harems of up to 50 females while competing with individuals of the smaller forms for successful mating. Females only reproduce once in their lifetime. It is difficult to identify females and juveniles of this species without accompanying males. This species is so rarely found in Australia that Poore and Storey (1999) consider that there may be no established breeding populations here. 

During the Port Kembla survey, this species was only found at one site, in a qualitative sample collected at the Wollongong Harbour (Boat Basin) (WHB). One specimen of this species was also found in the samples collected during the Botany Bay introduced marine pests survey (Pollard and Pethebridge 2000).

Sphaeroma walkeri Stebbing, 1905 is a sessile biofouling isopod with a body less than 10 mm in length. It lives in marine and estuarine intertidal areas, occupying empty barnacle shells and spaces amongst fouling communities on rock outcrops, rock jetties or other man-made structures. Its distribution is limited to waters with a minimum surface temperature of 15oC (Furlani 1996). 

This species is native to the northern Indian Ocean. The first Australian records were from NSW in 1927 and Queensland in 1967. The known Australian distribution is from Ross Creek, Townsville, in Queensland, to Sydney (Port Jackson, Darling Harbour and Blackwattle Bay) in NSW. The impact of this species in Australian waters is not known (Furlani 1996). It was probably introduced to Australia on ships' hulls.

In Port Kembla, S. walkeri was found in pile scraping samples collected from at a total of twelve sites. In the Outer Harbour, it was found in samples from the No 4 (BLB) Jetty (J4O), No 3 Jetty (J3O), J6O, the BHP Saltwater Intake (WIO) and the Inflammable Liquids Berth (ILB) sites. In the Inner Harbour, specimens of this species were collected from the No 1 Products Wharf (PW1), No 2 Discharge Wharf (DW2), No 2 Products Wharf (PW2), Multi-Purpose Berth (MPB), Grain Berth (GBI), No 1 (Bulk) Coal Berth (BCB) and No 2 (Old) Coal Berth (OCB) sites. Jetty 6 provided the most samples (17) containing specimens of this species. The PW2, GBI and MPB sites also provided substantial numbers of samples (9, 7 and 6, respectively) containing S. walkeri. 

The amphipods, or beach hoppers, comprise about 8000 described and many times more undescribed species (Edgar 2000). The amphipods collected from Port Kembla included a total of 22 species from 15 families. Four of these species are known to have been introduced to Australian waters from overseas, and two species are cosmopolitan (i.e. found in waters throughout the world). The introduced species included Corophium acutum Chevreux, 1908, Paradexamine pacifica (Thompson, 1879), Liljeborgia c.f. dellavallei Stebbing, 1906, and Elasmopus rapax Costa, 1853. The cosmopolitan species included Caprella equilibra Say, 1818, and Stenothoe valida Dana, 1852. 

Corophium acutum was probably introduced to Australian waters from the Mediterranean Sea. It was first recorded in New Zealand in 1880, and in Australia in 1937 (Poore and Storey 1999). The genus Corophium contains about 60 species that occur in freshwater, marine and estuarine waters in temperate and tropical latitudes. Several species of this genus have been transported to harbours around the world via shipping, and some have caused mass invasions. About six species of this genus have been introduced to Australian waters. Several undescribed native species also occur (Poore and Storey 1999). 

In Port Kembla, C. acutum was collected from one pile scraping sample from the BHP Roll-on Roll-off Berth (western) (WRR) site and four pile scraping samples from the GBI site. This species was also extremely abundant in the samples collected during the Botany Bay introduced marine pests survey (Pollard and Pethebridge 2000).

Paradexamine pacifica was introduced to Australia from New Zealand. This species was found in one pile scraping sample from the J3O site in the Outer Harbour of Port Kembla. 
Liljeborgia c.f. dellavallei was introduced to Australia from the Mediterranean Sea. This species was found in qualitative and quantitative pile scraping samples from sixteen different sites in Port Kembla. These sites included two sites on the open coast (BGI and WHH); 5 sites in the Outer Harbour (J3O, J4O, J6O, ILB and NBI); and 9 sites in the Inner Harbour (PW1, DW2, WRR, PW2, MPB, GBI, ERR, BCB and OCB). 

Elasmopus rapax was probably also introduced to Australia from the Mediterranean Sea. This species was extremely abundant throughout the samples collected from Port Kembla. It was found at 20 of the 32 sites sampled in and around the port. These sites included 3 on the open coast (BGI, WHB and WHH), 7 in the Outer Harbour (J4O, J3O, WRW, J6O, WIO, ILB and NBI), and 10 in the Inner Harbour (PW1, DW1, DW2, WRR, PW2, MPB, GBI, BII, BCB and OCB). Samples from each of these sites contained many specimens of this species. It was found in pile scraping samples as well as qualitative samples at these sites.

Caprella equilibra, from the Family Caprellidae, is a widespread cosmopolitan species of unknown origin. In Port Kembla it was found in a qualitative sample from the Boat Harbour in Wollongong Harbour (WHH). This species was also found in the samples collected at two sites during the Botany Bay introduced marine pests survey (Pollard and Pethebridge 2000). Stenothoe valida is also a cosmopolitan species of unknown origin. In Port Kembla, it was found in a pile scraping sample taken at the J6O site.

Molluscs

The molluscs are invertebrates with bodies comprising a head and a muscular foot separated by a visceral mass containing the digestive, reproductive and excretory organs. This visceral mass is covered by a sheet of tissue called the mantle, with a space (the mantle cavity) between it and the visceral mass for the gills. In many groups a calcareous external shell, secreted by the mantle, protects the animal. However, in some forms this shell has been reduced or is internal or absent (Edgar 2000). Despite having the same overall morphological pattern, various mollusc groups include species with different body forms, such as clams, snails, squids and chitons. 

John Pogonoski, from the Australian Museum, Sydney, identified the molluscs collected from Port Kembla. These molluscs are listed in Table 4.2.9. A total of 72 species were identified from these Port Kembla samples. These included 46 gastropod species from 21 families, and 26 bivalve species from 17 families. 

The gastropods form the largest and most widespread class of molluscs. This group includes the abalones, limpets, periwinkles, cowries, tritons, whelks and many other sea snail families (Edgar 2000). Many gastropods possess a right handed, spirally-coiled shell into which the animal can withdraw. The entrance is sealed by a rounded lid-like structure, the operculum. Members of the bivalve class (also known as pelycepods or lamellibranchs) possess two valves, which are joined at the margin by an elastic ligament and associated hinge teeth (Edgar 2000). 

Other molluscs that commonly occur in Australian waters include the chitons and the cephalopods (squid, octopus and cuttlefish). No species from these groups were collected in the Port Kembla samples during this survey.

Although no previous comprehensive survey of molluscs has been undertaken in Port Kembla, many more species (235) have been recorded previously from Shell Harbour, just to the south of Port Kembla. The smaller number of species collected from Port Kembla may be a result of the brief sampling period as well as the fact that more species could have been collected there in soft sediments using other sampling techniques, such as benthic grabs. Many of the mollusc species collected in Port Kembla (67% of the gastropods and 26% of the bivalves) occurred in only small numbers and at only a single site (Pogonoski, unpublished). 

A total of nine introduced mollusc species (7 gastropods and 2 bivalves) are known to occur in the greater Sydney Region. Some of these may possibly also occur in Port Kembla, though no introduced species were amongst those molluscs collected during the Port Kembla survey. Some of these introduced species may have been collected there had the sampling been carried out differently (Pogonoski, unpublished). 

Mytilus galloprovincialis, the blue mussel, was the single cryptogenic species collected in the Port Kembla samples. This species is known to have a wide distribution throughout the world, though the origin of the Australian form is unknown. It may have arrived in Australia during the early days of European colonisation, possibly carried there on the hulls of sailing ships from the Northern Hemisphere (Anon 2001). This species was previously known as Mytilus edulis or M. planulatus in southern Australian waters, where it is farmed commercially.

In the Port Kembla survey collections, Mytilus galloprovincialis was the dominant mollusc found in terms of numbers of individuals, with 707 specimens being collected. It was also widely distributed amongst the sites, being found at 19 of the 32 sites surveyed. This species occurred at the Big Island (BGI) site off the open coast, and was also collected from most of the sites (7 out of 11) in the Outer Harbour. These included the No 4 (BLB) Jetty (J4O), No 3 Jetty (J3O), Western Revetment Wall (WRW), No 6 Jetty (J6O), BHP Saltwater Intake (WIO), Inflammable Liquids Berth (ILB) and Northern Breakwater (NBI) sites. In the Inner Harbour, Mytilus galloprovincialis was also collected from most of the sites (11 out of 13) surveyed. These included the No 1 Products Wharf (PW1), No 1 Discharge Wharf (DW1), No 2 Discharge Wharf (DW2), BHP Roll-on Roll-off Berth (western) (WRR), No 2 Products Wharf (DW2), Multi-Purpose Berth (MPB), Grain Berth (GBI), Tom Thumb Road Bridge (B1I), ANL Roll-on Roll-off Berth (eastern) (ERR), No 1 (Bulk) Coal Berth (BCB) and No 2 (Old) Coal Berth (OCB) sites. The largest numbers of this species were collected at the J6O (322) and J3O (133) sites in the Outer Harbour.

Other numerically dominant bivalve species found in the Port Kembla samples included Hiatella australis (437 individuals), the native mud oyster Ostrea angasi (250 individuals), and the galeomatid Kellia sp. (17 individuals). Numerically dominant gastropods included the scavenging nassariids Nassarius jonasii (426 individuals) and Nassarius burchardi (78 individuals), as well as the trochid Bankivia fasciata (47 individuals). No more than 10 individuals of each of the other gastropod species found occurred in the samples (Pogonoski, unpublished). 

Bryozoans

The bryozoans, or moss animals, are a group of invertebrates which, together with four other taxa, possess a food catching organ called a lophophore (Barnes 1987). In the bryozoans, the lophophore is a crown of tentacles which protrudes from a protective covering. Although each individual animal is minute, bryozoans are colonial animals and may form large aggregations up to a metre across. About 5000 species occur worldwide, with the southern and south-eastern coasts of Australia containing about 500 species (Edgar 2000). They are sessile animals, and mostly occur on hard substrates in marine environments. Only a few species have stalks, which allow them to live in the sand. 

Dr R. Nair, taxonomic consultant of Wentworthville, NSW, identified the bryozoans collected from Port Kembla. Table 4.2.10 lists a total of 24 species identified from 13 families. In all, 16 of these species are introduced, with 1 species being cryptogenic in origin. A brief description of the introduced and cryptogenic species is as follows:

Two species from the Family Vesiculariidae identified from the Port Kembla samples have been introduced. These are Amathia sp. and Bowerbankia sp. Amathia sp. occurs throughout many parts of the world, including France, the Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, Atlantic Coast of America, Java and Japan. It is uncertain as to when and where it was first recorded in Australia, and little is known of its ecology in southern Australia. It can be confused with native species of the same genus (Hewitt et al. 1999). 

In the Port Kembla survey, Amathia sp. was collected from a single qualitative sample taken at one open coast site, the Wollongong Harbour (Boat Harbour) (WHH) site. It was also collected in two samples from the Eastern Breakwater (EBO) site, also on the open coast. 

Bowerbankia sp. was first recorded in Australia in the 1970s, and was probably introduced through shipping (Hewitt et al. 1999). Specimens of this genus previously recorded from Victoria could be B. imbricata or B. gracilis, both of which are important fouling organisms. In the Port Kembla samples, specimens of Bowerbankia sp. were collected from a pile scraping sample taken from the No 2 Products Wharf (PW2). 

Introduced species from the Family Bugulidae included Bugula dentata, Bugula flabellata, Bugula neritina and Bugula stolonifera.  Bugula dentata has a cosmopolitan distribution, probably having been transported around the world via the hulls of ships. It is green in colour and small in size, with a height that is rarely greater than 5 cm. In Australia it is known to occur in South Australia and in Port Phillip Bay in Victoria (Currie et al. 1999). 

During the Port Kembla survey, this species was collected in a qualitative sample from the EBO site on the open coast. This species was also collected during the Botany Bay introduced marine pests survey (Pollard and Pethebridge 2000). 

Bugula flabellata was introduced to New South Wales and South Australia from southern Britain (it occurs in the North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea) in the late 1940s. This species commonly occurs on rocky shores and on dark sublittoral rock surfaces in warm-temperate Australian waters (Furlani 1996; Currie et al. 1999). It is now widely distributed in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia. It probably arrived attached to the hulls of ships; however, this is not certain. Bugula flabellata is rarely confused with native species, though it may often be confused with other exotic species. There is little information on the impact of this species on other Australian fauna (Currie et al. 1999). the Port Kembla survey, specimens of this species were found in pile scraping samples from the No 6 Jetty (J6O), No 2 Products Wharf (PW2) and No 1 (Bulk) Coal Berth (BCB) sites. It was also found in a qualitative sample from the Northern Breakwater (NBI) site in the Outer Harbour. This species was also collected during the Botany Bay introduced marine pests survey (Pollard and Pethebridge 2000).

Bugula neritina was first recorded from Victoria in the 1880s, and now occurs in many ports throughout southern Australia, including some in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia. It is often present in isolated ports (e.g. Point Turton, Yorke Peninsula, South Australia) without occurring in nearby waters. This species was introduced to Australia from Europe, and has a wide distribution throughout the world, being only absent from cold polar and subarctic/subantarctic waters (Furlani 1996; Hewitt et al. 1999). The impact of this species on the native marine fauna in Australian waters is unknown (Furlani 1996). 

Specimens of Bugula neritina were found in qualitative samples that were collected from the EBO and WHH open coast sites. In the Outer Harbour, it was collected from a pile scraping sample taken from the No 4 (BLB) Jetty (J4O) site and a qualitative sample taken from the Northern Breakwater (NBI) site. This species was also collected from a pile scraping sample taken from the BCB site. Bugula neritina was also collected during the Botany Bay introduced marine pests survey (Pollard and Pethebridge 2000). 

Bugula stolonifera is native to Western Europe, southern Britain, the Mediterranean Sea and the Adriatic Sea, and also occurs in New Zealand. It has been present in Australian waters since the 1880s, and because of this early date of introduction, it therefore probably arrived attached to ships' hulls (Currie et al. 1999). It is unlikely that this species has much impact on other animals in Australian waters. Specimens of Bugula stolonifera were found in pile scraping samples taken from the PW2 and BCB sites in the Inner Harbour of Port Kembla. It was also collected during the Botany Bay introduced marine pests survey (Pollard and Pethebridge 2000). 

Cryptosula pallasiana, from the Family Cryptosulidae, is an encrusting species with pinkish-orange or orange crusts. It originated from the Mediterranean Sea, and is a widespread fouling species, being found in ports, harbours and estuarine situations worldwide. In Australia, this species was recorded previously from Tasmanian, Victorian and NSW waters (Gordon 1989; R. Nair, unpubl.). Specimens of Cryptosula pallasiana were collected from a pile scraping sample taken at the No 1 Products Wharf (PW1) site in the Outer Harbour area. This species was also collected during the Botany Bay introduced marine pests survey (Pollard and Pethebridge 2000). 

A total of five species from the Family Schizoporellidae were collected during the Port Kembla survey. All of these species have been introduced to Australian waters from overseas. They included Schizoporella errata, Schizoporella sp. A, Schizoporella sp. B, Schizoporella sp. C and Schizoporella unicornis. Schizoporella unicornis is a an encrusting form which lives in bays, harbours and on the open coast down to 60 m depth (Furlani 1996). It is native to Japan, and was introduced to Sydney in the 1940s. A subsequent introduction occurred after 1953 in both South Australian and Western Australian waters. Its introduction was probably via ship's hull fouling or oyster mariculture (Furlani 1996). It now occurs in Port Jackson (Sydney), in South Australia, and at Fremantle in Western Australia. 

Specimens of Schizoporella unicornis were found in a qualitative sample collected at the open coastal WHH site. This species was also collected from pile scraping samples taken at the No 3 Jetty (J3O) and Inflammable Liquids Berth (ILB) sites, and in a core sample at the ILB site, all in the Outer Harbour area. The remaining species were mainly collected from pile scrapings sampled at various Outer Harbour sites. A member of the genus Schizoporella, probably Schizoporella errata, is also the dominant fouling organism immediately below the waterline on the hulls of yachts and other small boats in Pittwater, just to the north of Sydney (D. Pollard and A. Afsar, pers. obs.). The ecological impacts of these Schizoporella species in Australian waters, however, are unknown. 

Tricellaria occidentalis, from the Family Candidae, grows as "erect, bushy, buff coloured colonies". This species was originally described from Santa Barbara (Mexico), California, and is found from British Columbia to southern California and Baja California, and also in China, Japan, Venice (Italy) and New Zealand. Previous Australian reports are from South Australia, New South Wales and Victoria (R. Nair, unpubl.).  Specimens of this species were found in pile scraping samples collected at the J4O, J3O and ILB sites in the Outer Harbour. They were also found in core samples collected from the J3O site. This species was also collected during the Botany Bay introduced marine pests survey (Pollard and Pethebridge 2000).

Two species from the Family Watersiporidae were collected during the Port Kembla survey. These were Watersipora arcuata and Watersipora subtorquata. Both of these species are introduced. Watersipora arcuata was first collected in Australian waters from NSW in the 1940s. This species is distinguished from the closely related W. subtorquata by the "arcuate" shape of its aperture, which is "roughly circular with a broad sinus at the proximal end" (Keough and Ross 1999). Like W. subtorquata, this species is encrusting, being made up of dark red-brown colonies. It settles on jetties and pylons around the low water mark (Furlani 1996). This species originated from the tropical waters of the eastern Pacific, and was transported to Australian waters via shipping. It is now known to be present in nearly all states in Australia, except Tasmania (Keough and Ross 1999). 

During the Port Kembla survey, Watersipora arcuata was collected from pile scraping samples taken from the J4O, J3O and ILB sites in the Outer Harbour. It was also collected from qualitative samples taken from the J4O, J6O and NBI sites, and from core samples at the J3O site, in the Outer Harbour. In the Inner Harbour, W. arcuata was collected from pile scraping samples taken from the PW1, No 2 Discharge Wharf (DW2), Tom Thumb Road Bridge (B1I) and No 2 (Old) Coal Berth (OCB) sites. It was also collected from core samples taken from the OCB site in the Inner Harbour.

Watersipora subtorquata was introduced to Queensland, New South Wales, South Australia and Western Australia in about 1889. It probably originated from Mexico, and now comprises a significant component of the hull fouling cover in these areas. The species is colonial and encrusting, and lives on jetties and wharf piles around the low water mark (Furlani 1996). The impact of this species in Australian waters is unknown. 

Specimens of Watersipora subtorquata were found in pile scraping samples taken at the J4O, J3O and J6O sites in the Outer Harbour. It was also collected in a qualitative sample taken from the NBI site in the Outer Harbour. In the Inner Harbour, this species was collected in qualitative samples taken from the No 1 Discharge Wharf (DW1), BHP Roll-on Roll-off Berth (western) (WRR) and Multi-Purpose Berth (MPB) sites. It was also collected from pile scraping samples taken at the PW2, MPB, Grain Berth (GBI), BCB and OCB sites, and from core samples taken at the WRR, MPB and GBI sites. This species was also collected during the Botany Bay introduced marine pests survey (Pollard and Pethebridge 2000).

Calyptotheca sp. was the only cryptogenic species identified from the Port Kembla samples. There are 12 species of Calyptotheca recorded from Australian waters, most of them being from Victoria. Calyptotheca triangula (Hincks,1881) and Calyptotheca variolosa (MacGillivray, 1869) have been recorded from NSW waters. Calyptotheca species are usually colonial, encrusting, erect or discoidal forms, with the zooids having an evenly perforated frontal shield and dimorphic orifices. Because this bryozoan was not identified to species level, its origin is therefore unknown. Species of this genus are known to occur in New Zealand, South Africa, India, Australia and Zanzibar. In the Port Kembla samples, Calyptotheca sp. was found in a qualitative sample collected at the Inner Harbour GBI site.

Echinoderms

The echinoderms (Phylum Echinodermata) include the conspicuous and often brightly coloured sea stars and feather stars. Over 6000 species belong to this phylum, which is unique in its morphological features. Originally, scientists thought that the echinoderms may be related to the anenomes and jellyfishes, because they possessed structures that radiate out from a central disc (hence the one name Radiata was initially created to cover both of these groups). However, it is now known that the echinoderms are more closely related to the vertebrates, as they possess an internal calcareous skeleton (Edgar 2000).
Echinoderms are divided into five classes, including the crinoids (feather stars), asteroids (sea stars), ophiuroids (brittle stars), echinoids (sea urchins) and holothurians (sea cucumbers) (Edgar 2000). 
Mr J. Pogonoski, from the Australian Museum in Sydney, identified the echinoderms collected from Port Kembla. Three specimens from three sea urchin species were collected. All three species commonly occur in the coastal waters of central NSW. Table 4.2.11 lists those echinoderms found.

Chordates

Several groups of chordates, belonging to the Subphylum Urochordata (or tunicates), do not have backbones, and all of these live in marine environments (Barnes 1987; Edgar 2000). These include three classes, the Ascidiacea, the Thaliacea and the Larvacea. The Ascidiacea, or ascidians, are the most common and make up the majority of the species of attached tunicates (Barnes 1987). The Phylum Chordata also includes the vertebrates, or animals with backbones (i.e. the fishes, amphibians, birds, reptiles and mammals). 

Ascidians

The ascidians, or sea squirts, are primitive sessile chordates in which the body is encased in a complex secreted outer covering, the tunic. 

Kirrily Moore, taxonomic consultant, of Hobart, Tasmania, identified the ascidians collected from Port Kembla. A total of 26 species from 6 families were identified. Table 4.2.12.1 lists these ascidians, which were collected from various sites in and around the port. Two of these species, Ciona intestinalis and Styela plicata, are considered to be introduced. A third species, Botryllus schlosseri, is considered to be cryptogenic.

Ciona intestinalis is a solitary ascidian which occurs as dense aggregations in marine and brackish estuaries, enclosed or semi-protected bays and harbours. It is often a dominant member of fouling communities on wharves and piles, and is commonly found on ships' hulls. This species originates from the North Atlantic Ocean, and was first recorded in Australian waters from Port Jackson (Sydney), NSW, in 1899. It is now distributed in various isolated ports around Australia. These include Rockhampton in Queensland, Port Jackson in NSW, Portland, Port Melbourne and Port Phillip Bay in Victoria, the Derwent River at Hobart in Tasmania, Port Adelaide and Outer Harbour at Adelaide in South Australia, and the Canning River, Swan River, Fremantle and Albany in Western Australia (Furlani 1996). 

In the Port Kembla survey, Ciona intestinalis was collected from pile scraping samples taken from the No 6 Jetty (J6O), No 3 Jetty (J3O) and Inflammable Liquids Berth (ILB) sites in the Outer Harbour. In the Inner Harbour it was collected from the No 1 Products Wharf (PW1), No 2 Products Wharf (PW2), Multi-Purpose Wharf (MPB), the Old Coal Berth (OCB), BHP Roll-on Roll-off Berth (western) (WRR), No 2 Discharge Wharf (DW2), Grain Berth (GBI) and No 1 (Bulk) Coal Berth (BCB) sites. It was also found in qualitative samples from the Northern Breakwater (NBI) site in the Outer Harbour and the Big Island (BGI) site on the open coast.

Styela plicata is a simple, solitary ascidian with a hemispherical body that grows to about 4-7 cm in length (Furlani 1996). It is easily distinguished from native species by the conspicuous brown stripes which occur on its siphons (Keough and Ross 1999). It usually occurs from lower intertidal waters to 30m depth, on hard substrata in calm waters of bays and harbours. This species can also withstand polluted and brackish waters (Kott 1985).

Styela plicata was originally recorded from temperate waters of the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea (Keough and Ross 1999). Because there are no early records from the general Indo-west Pacific area, this species is considered to have been introduced to Australian waters via ships' hulls or ballast water (Kott 1985). It was first recorded from Port Jackson and Port Hacking (Sydney) NSW, in the 1870s and in Port Phillip Bay in Victoria in 1966 (Keough and Ross 1999).

In the Port Kembla Survey, Styela plicata was commonly collected from wharf pile scrapings taken from the J4O, PW1, J6O, PW2, MPB, OCB, ILB, J3O, WRR, DW2, GBI and BCB sites. It was also collected from qualitative samples taken from the MPB, NBI, ANL Roll-on Roll-off Berth (eastern) (ERR), GBI, BGI, and Wollongong Harbour (Boat Harbour) (WHH) sites.

Botryllus schlosseri is a colonial ascidian with a firm, fleshy test and stalked lobes. It inhabits mainly temperate waters, but also warmer waters of the Mediterranean Sea and sub-tropical Australia. It is a fouling organism, which occurs in estuaries and shallow waters, encrusting seagrasses, oysters and rocky breakwaters (Furlani 1996). It originates from the north-eastern Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea, and was first recorded from Australian waters in Western Australia in 1928. It was subsequently recorded from Hobsons Bay in Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, in 1977 and from other parts of Port Phillip Bay in 1985 (Keough and Ross 1999). The ecology of Botryllus schlosseri in southern Australia has not been well studied. 

In the Port Kembla survey, Botryllus schlosseri was collected from wharf pile scrapings taken from the J4O, J6O, OCB, J3O, BCB, and PW1 sites.

Fishes

The ecological implications of introduced marine fishes in Australia are discussed in some detail in a review by Pollard and Hutchings (1990a). Dr David Pollard of NSW Fisheries and Mr Matthew Lockett from the University of Technology, Sydney, identified the fishes collected from Port Kembla during the present survey. The fishes caught and observed comprised 48 species, two of which are known to be introduced. Both of the introduced species were Asian gobies, including Tridentiger trigonocephalus (Japanese striped goby) and Acentrogobius pflaumi (Pflaum's goby). 

Tridentiger trigonocephalus originates from the rocky shores of bays throughout Japan, eastern China, the Korean Peninsula and south-eastern USSR. This species has colonised restricted areas in the coastal waters of both California and Australia. The first specimen collected in Australia was in 1973, from Sydney Harbour. Subsequently, specimens were collected from the Swan River estuary near Perth, the Port of Fremantle and Cockburn Sound in WA, and Port Phillip Bay in Victoria. More recently this species has been collected in high densities from both Sydney Harbour and Port Kembla. The most likely vector for the transport of the species into Australian waters is the ballast water of ships arriving from Japan (Pollard and Hutchings 1990a).

In the present survey, Tridentiger trigonocephalus was quite common at several sites, and was the dominant fish species at the No 1 Discharge Wharf (DW1) and ANL Roll-on Roll-off Berth (eastern) (ERR) sites in the Inner Harbour, with very large numbers being found at these localities. This species was also common at the Boat Harbour (BHO), No 4 (Bulk Liquids Berth) Jetty (J4O), No 6 Jetty (J6O), Western Revetment Wall (WRW) and Inflammable Liquids Berth (ILB) sites in the Outer Harbour, and at the Grain Berth (GBI) and Old Coal Berth (OCB) sites in the Inner Harbour.

Acentrogobius pflaumi occurs naturally in Japan, the Korean Peninsula, Taiwan and the Phillipines (Lockett and Gomon 1999). Previously, this species was only known to occur in Australia in Port Phillip Bay near Melbourne, Victoria. It was first recorded there in 1996, and although it is the most recently known introduced goby species in Port Phillip Bay, it appears to be the most successful of the four fish species introduced there (Lockett and Gomon 1999). 

During the Port Kembla survey, one specimen of Acentrogobius pflaumi was found in a clove oil (fish anaesthetic) sample collected at the OCB site.
A third species of East Asian goby, the yellowfinned goby Acanthogobius flavimanus, had previously been recorded from Port Kembla (Pollard and Hutchings 1990a), but was not found during the present survey.

Table 4.12.2 lists the fish species collected during the Port Kembla survey.

Bird Sightings

A list of birds that have been sighted in or around Port Kembla Harbour. The year of sighting is quoted where known.

Azure Kingfisher
Black-shouldered Kite
Pied Currawong
Red-browed  Finch
White-bellied Cuckoo-shrike
White-cheeked Honeyeater
Green Figbird

Chestnut-breasted Teal
Chestnut- breasted Manikin
Hoary-headed Grebe
Kelp Gull
Little Black Cormorant

Black Swan (1996)
Brown Quail (1996)
Dusky Moorhen (1996, 1997)
Chestnut Teal (1997)
European starling (1996, 1997)
Feral Pigeon (1996, 1997)
Goldfinch
Grey-breasted Silver Eye
House Sparrow (1996, 1997)
Indian Mynah (1996,1997)
Indian Turtle Dove (1996,1997)
Masked Plover (1996, 1997)
New Holland Honey-eater
Pacific Black Duck (1996, 1997)
Purple Swamphen (1996,1997)
Raven (1996)
Skylark
Superb Fairy Wren

Environmental data recorded during the port survey

The environmental data recorded in conjunction with the sampling operations is summarised in Table 4.3. Sampling was carried out during daylight hours (between 10.00 and 16.00 hours) between 8 and 14 May 2000. The shallowest bottom sampling depth recorded was 1.0 metres at the Northern Beach (NSS), Boat Harbour (BHO) and Northern Breakwater (Inner) (NBI) sites. The deepest bottom sampling depth recorded was 16.7 metres at the No 2 Discharge Wharf (DW2) site. The Secchi depth (a measure of turbidity) ranged from 1.8 metres at the DW2 and Grain Berth (GBI) sites to greater than 12 metres at the Big Island (BGI) site. The air temperature ranged from 18oC (at the No 1 Discharge Wharf (DW1), Multi-Purpose Berth (MPB), No 1 (Bulk) Coal Berth (BCB) and the Mid-Port Inner Harbour (MPI) sites) to 20oC (at the No 6 Jetty (J6O) and GBI sites)). The surface water temperature ranged from 19.1oC (at the BHP Roll-on Roll-off Berth (western) (WRR) site) to 20.5oC (at the MPB site). The bottom water temperature ranged from 18.5oC (at the MPB site) to 18.6oC (at the No 1 Products Wharf (PW1), DW1, WRR and ANL Roll-on Roll-off Berth (eastern) (ERR) sites). The surface salinity ranged from 33.0 %o (at the DW1 site) to 36.0 %o (at the WRR site). The bottom salinity ranged from 35.0 %o (at the DW1 site) to 35.9%o (at the PW1 and MPB sites). 

Potential Impacts of Introduced Species

Species found in Port Kembla

The analysis of specimens collected during the present survey has detected two ABWMAC target introduced marine pest species (Appendix 1, Schedule 1) as being present in Port Kembla: the toxic dinoflagellates Alexandrium sp. (catenella type) and Alexandrium ostenfeldii/peruvianum. No other ABWMAC listed target pest species were detected within the port.

An additional 47 introduced and/or cryptogenic (i.e. of status unknown) species were also detected. These included one alga, five species of hydrozoans, one anthozoan, four species of polychaetes, one polyclad worm, thirteen species of crustaceans, one mollusc, sixteen species of bryozoans, three species of ascidians and two species of fish (see Table 5.1). Many (20 out of 33) of the introduced species recorded from Port Kembla were not included in, and should now be added to, the official list of exotic species known to be present in Australian waters (see Appendix 1, Schedule 3). 

Various species of dinoflagellates, such as Alexandrium spp., can form extensive blooms, which can in turn produce potent neurotoxins. These neurotoxins are concentrated by shellfish, and when these are eaten by humans they can cause Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP). Toxicity may develop in both wild and cultured shellfish. Marine animals may also be affected during such blooms as a result of physical damage, oxygen depletion and the effects of the toxins, either directly or through the food chain (White 1980, 1982, Gosselin et al. 1989, Geraci et al. 1989, Jones 1991). Impacts of these toxic dinoflagellates are likely to be greatest on shellfish mariculture activities, though no aquaculture takes place in the waters of Port Kembla.

Alexandrium catenella is commonly recorded in coastal bays and estuaries from Port Phillip Bay, Victoria (Hallegraeff et al. 1991), and northwards along the Victorian and NSW coasts (Sonneman and Hill 1996) to the Hunter River at Newcastle. Although this species has caused toxic PSP blooms in Sydney Harbour, there is no indication that this dinoflagellate has in the past caused toxic blooms in Port Kembla.

The vast majority of the remaining introduced and cryptogenic species detected in Port Kembla (Table 5.1) are not presently known to have any significant impacts on native aquatic animal and plant communities. 

The most diverse and abundant group of introduced fouling organisms found in Port Kembla was the bryozoans. Out of the 24 bryozoan species collected during the present survey, 15 of these are considered to be introduced and one is considered cryptogenic. The arborescent bryozoans Bugula flabellata and Bugula neritina are found in port regions throughout the world. In Australia, Bugula flabellata is also known from Gulf St Vincent in SA and from Jervis Bay to Eden in NSW (Furlani 1996). Bugula neritina has been found previously in Spencer Gulf and Gulf St Vincent in SA (Furlani 1996) and also previously in Port Kembla in NSW (Moran and Grant 1993). A number of species of the widespread genus Schizoporella were also found to be common in Port Kembla, and a member of this genus is a dominant bryozoan hull fouling organism in Pittwater (Broken Bay, to the north of Sydney) (Afsar 2000). Several of the other species of bryozoans found in Port Kembla are also widespread, both in other Australian port environments and worldwide.

Of the introduced fishes collected from Port Kembla, Tridentiger trigonocephalus appears to have successfully colonised the deeper waters around many of the port structures. Even though this species is only one out of 48 species of fishes caught in the area during the present study, it was the most abundant species at two of the sites where it was collected.

Comparisons with other NSW ports

With regard to the distributions of introduced and cryptogenic marine species throughout some of the major ports in NSW, Table 5.2 provides a comparison of four such ports along the southern half of the NSW coastline, between Newcastle and the Victorian border. These include, from south to north, the ports of Eden, Port Kembla, Botany Bay and Newcastle. The only other major port in this region, Sydney Harbour (located between Botany Bay and Newcastle) is currently under study, and at this stage no comprehensive results on its introduced and cryptogenic marine species are available.

From this table it can be seen that Port Kembla has the largest numbers of introduced and cryptogenic marine species listed, followed by Botany Bay, Newcastle and Eden, in that order. This may to some extent reflect more thorough and comprehensive sampling during the more recent surveys (i.e. of Port Kembla and Botany Bay), compared with those carried out earlier (i.e. of Newcastle and Eden). This could be expected as the survey teams involved gained increasing experience in this type of study over this period. However, in spite of this possible bias, some inferences can be drawn from the comparisons presented. Also, although some additional introduced species have been recorded from each of these ports in the past, only those found during the current series of port surveys are listed here.

Overall, from the results of these four port surveys, Port Kembla was found to support 49 introduced and/or cryptogenic species (including 2 ABWMAC listed introduced marine pest species, 33 other introduced species and 14 cryptogenic species); Botany Bay had 29 species (1, 19 and 8 species, respectively, in these three categories); Newcastle 26 (2, 18 and 6, respectively); and Eden 12 (3, 8 and 1, respectively).

The toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium catenella (or 'catenella type') was found in all four ports, together with one other Alexandrium species in each of Port Kembla and Newcastle.

Bryozoans were generally dominant amongst the introduced and cryptogenic species in most of the ports, together with significant numbers of hydrozoans. Malacostracans and cirripedes (crustaceans) and polychaete worms were also significant in Port Kembla.
Apart from toxic dinoflagellates, the port of Eden also contained two ABWMAC listed introduced marine invertebrate pest species, the giant European fanworm Sabella spallanzanii and the European green shore crab Carcinus maenas. Both of these species are much more common further to the south (especially in Victoria) and may be approaching the northern limits of their temperature tolerance ranges around Eden. No such introduced marine invertebrate pest species were found in either Port Kembla or the two other ports studied to its north.

Origins of and Possible Vectors for the Introduction of Exotic Species found in the Port

Exotic marine species found in Port Kembla are likely to have been introduced to the port by one of three mechanisms:

• by natural range expansion of species introduced to other parts of the south-eastern coast of the Australian mainland;

• directly to the port by shipping using the port, either in ballast water or by hull fouling; or

• by domestic translocation via commercial fishing and recreational vessels.

Those species likely to have become established in Port Kembla as a result of natural range expansion may include some of the bryozoans and other species with a planktonic phase in their life history. For all species, however, additional domestic translocations may have occurred through human activities (e.g. coastal shipping). The exotic or cryptogenic bryozoans, hydroids, barnacles and ascidians found in the port generally have broad distributions throughout south-eastern Australia and are well known to establish on the hulls of vessels, as well as having a planktonic life history phase which could live in ballast water tanks. These species are likely to have been introduced through multiple invasion events.

Several species are also likely to have been introduced either directly via international shipping or indirectly from other first-entry ports via commercial, recreational and fishing vessels or slower moving vessels such as dredges. Extensive hull fouling can develop on such slow-moving vessels due to longer port residence times and the relative infrequency of dry-docking and brush-cart service (in-water hull cleaning). Slower moving vessels are likely to increase the survival of species encrusting their hulls, leading to the entry to and potential colonisation of the port by a diverse adult invertebrate community.

Because of the high frequency of ship visits to the port, several species are likely to have been introduced directly to Port Kembla via either international or domestic shipping. The toxic dinoflagellates Alexandrium spp. are likely to have been translocated either from within Australia by domestic transfer of ballast water from infected ports, or directly from overseas ports. The origin of this toxic dinoflagellate genus in Port Kembla, however, remains problematic. The resting cysts of Alexandrium species survive for 5-10 years in sediments but fossilisation of cysts is not known to occur. The origin of cysts therefore cannot be inferred from fossil records. Alexandrium catenella is known from other coastal estuaries and embayments in NSW (Hallegraeff et al. 1991) and may have been transported via coastwise ballast water movements. The distribution of Alexandrium spp. within the port may also indicate multiple inoculations over time or from bloom forming events that may have occurred unnoticed in the past. 

Japanese shipping may pose the biggest threat of transporting such exotic pathogens into Australia because of the large number of ships visiting and the prevalence of these pathogens in many Japanese ports. Introduced marine organisms are thought to arrive in Australia from Japan at a rate of twice that from all other countries combined (Anon. 1998c).

Effect of Port Environment and Port Practices on Colonisation and Survival of Introduced Species

The resident fauna of Port Kembla is indicative of a relatively marine-dominated estuarine environment, partly enclosed and sheltered from the open coast, but in places with significant exposure to variations in wind and wave height. Of the introduced species detected in the port, the majority are not normally restricted to sheltered environments and some may be capable of extending their ranges beyond the Port Kembla locale.
Port enhancement activities such as maintenance dredging, berth development and revetment construction create disturbed and novel habitats, which may in turn lead to increased invasion success. Many introduced species appear to require some form of disturbance in order to enter and survive in an existing native community. These activities in the port may have influenced the establishment of some encrusting or fouling species in the past. 

Hull cleaning activities, either in the water (brush-cart cleaning) or in dry dock, can have significant influences on the inoculation and establishment of introduced species. However, neither of these activities currently take place in Port Kembla.

Maintenance dredging practices are unlikely to influence the distribution of most species in the port, with the exception of possibly redistributing the cysts of toxic dinoflagellate species. In this latter regard, however, a major sewage outfall planned for construction immediately to the north of the port (Sydney Water 1999) could greatly increase nutrient levels in the port waters under southward flowing inshore current conditions. Under these conditions, suspension in the water column of dinoflagellate cysts from the bottom sediments due to dredging activities or shipping movements in conjunction with such elevated nutrient levels could result in the occurrence of toxic dinoflagellate blooms in these enclosed port waters.

Assessment of the Risk of New Introductions to the Port

The successful introduction of an exotic species to a port through hull fouling or ballast water discharge requires some level of environmental matching between the donor and receiving ports; the degree of matching required and those characteristics which are most important will depend on the environmental (e.g. temperature) tolerances of individual species. In the absence of this species-level information, some general observations can still be made relative to the possible risks of new introductions to Port Kembla.
The periodic presence of slow-moving, long-residence vessels, such as dredging vessels, in a port may present an opportunity for significant fouling communities to establish themselves while these ships reside in that port. Previous work in the North Pacific has demonstrated the ability for such vessels to transport complete assemblages over long distances (Carlton 1985). Long residence times may allow for reproductive populations of such marine organisms to establish themselves. The presence of dredging vessels in Port Kembla, however, is a rare occurrence.

Assessment of the risk of Translocation of Introduced Species found in the Port

An assessment of the risks of translocation of introduced marine species from Port Kembla to other ports by shipping involves similar considerations to those discussed in assessing the risks of new introductions. Any vessels loading ballast water in Port Kembla are therefore likely to discharge this Port Kembla water in or near other Australian or overseas ports. The likelihood of the transport to and successful establishment of such species in those new environments will be determined by their presence in the water column during ballast water uptake in Port Kembla, as well as their survival during the voyage to and the environmental regime in the recipient port. This information is outlined in Hayes and Hewitt (1998) as a foundation of the risk assessment-based Decision Support System recently developed and adopted by the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS).
Some vessels, and particularly slower moving and longer residence ones, are likely to move organisms around via hull fouling. These organisms are likely to include various encrusting bryozoans, hydroids, barnacles and ascidians. The majority of domestic traffic to and from port Kembla occurs within south-eastern Australia and is thus likely to be between ports with relatively similar environments (see Table 1.3). Consequently, the risk of translocation and establishment of introduced marine species through this vector can be relatively high.

Recommendations

Management and monitoring of existing introduced species in the port

Most of the introduced species detected during this survey of Port Kembla appear to be well established in the port. For these species in general, their eradication from the port by physical removal ceases to be a realistic option. Many of them are now widespread in south-eastern Australian waters and controls aimed at limiting their spread are unlikely to be effective.

The following recommendations, however, are made in relation to the results of this study:

That an on-going (possibly bi-annual, in December and March) phytoplankton (net sampling) monitoring program should be undertaken in the port to establish the presence and seasonality of any toxic dinoflagellate species which may either be released by ballast water discharge or periodically bloom from cysts already present in the port's sediments. (As an Alexandrium species of the 'catenella type' is already established in the port, the formation of blooms either directly from extant cysts or from future ballast water discharge of this species could contribute directly to fish kill events.). Although no toxic blooms have previously been recorded in Port Kembla, any blooms which may occur in the future in this port should be monitored and sampled for the presence of toxic algal species. 

That a longer-term dinocore monitoring program should be initiated for encysted dinoflagellates, with qualitative evaluations of the main berth areas being undertaken on an annual basis.

That the extent to which these cysts may be transferred via ballast water uptake could be ascertained by sampling of sediments and water prior to and during any future dredging activities and dredge spoil discharge.

Based upon the frequency of ship visits and ballast water discharges, that a more targeted survey of introduced species in the port, including dinoflagellate coring, should be undertaken sometime in the future, particularly targeting areas of active ballast water discharge and any dredge spoil disposal sites.

Prevention of new introductions to the port

There is currently no information available on which to base any estimates of the risks of further introductions to the port via hull fouling, though this should not be a serious problem in view of more modern hull cleaning management approaches (see ANZECC 1997 and Appendix 5).

New mandatory arrangements for managing international ballast water have recently been introduced by the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS), from 1 July 2001. These require exchange of ballast water in mid-ocean, and the individual assessment of ballast water loads as low-risk or high-risk for introducing toxic organisms to Australian waters. Contingency deballasting zones, where high risk ballast water can be safely discharged, are to be established following research to map suitable areas. These measures should reduce the likelihood of future marine pest species introductions into and between Australian ports, including Port Kembla, through this vector (AQIS 2001, Geeves 2001). 

In relation to future shipping activities in the port, current activity by AQIS should also result in additional database development concerning vessel movements and ballast water origins and discharges on a per tank basis. In order to facilitate consistency between databases, it would also be useful to incorporate an agreed upon set of port names of the world. This list should be available in the near future and would provide for accurate naming and identification of last and next ports of call.

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Appendices

Appendix 1 - Schedule of Introduced Species

Schedule 1. Australian Ballast Water Management Advisory Council (ABWMAC) schedule of target introduced pest species (or taxa)

Schedule 2. Marine pest species that may pose a significant threat in Australian waters

Schedule 3. Known exotic species present in Australian waters

Appendix 2 - Ballast Water Activity at the Berths in Port Kembla

The discharge and take up of ballast water (de-ballasting and ballasting, respectively) is directly associated with the quantity of cargo loading and/or discharge being undertaken by the vessel. As a general rule, as a vessel loads cargo it de-ballasts and when discharging cargo it ballasts.

The Table below identifies the berths present in the Port of Port Kembla, the cargo they handle and the consequential ballast water activity that can be anticipated at that berth.

Glossary:

Ballast               Take up of ballast water from the Port.

De-ballast          Discharge of ballast water into the Port.

Handysize          Vessels up to about 185m in length with cargo capacity up to about 35,000t.

Panamax           Vessels between 210 and 235m in length with cargo capacity up to about 70,000t.

Capesized         Vessels above about 250m in length with cargo capacity up to about (for Port Kembla) 160,000t.

Export               The export of cargo from the port, irrespective of it being interstate                          or overseas

Import               The import of cargo to the port, irrespective of it being intrastate,                          interstate or international.

Appendix 3 - Sampling Procedures

Target Species

Sediment Sampling for cyst-forming species

Sediment cores are taken from locations within the port where the deposition and undisturbed accumulation of dinoflagellate cysts is likely to occur. Selection of sites is based on depth, local hydrography and sediment characteristics of the area. At each site triplicate sediment cores are taken by divers using 20 cm long tubes with a 2.5 cm internal diameter. Tubes are forced into the sediment then capped at each end with a bung to provide an air-tight seal. Following sampling, cores are stored upright in the dark at 4°C prior to size fractionation, examination for dinoflagellate cysts, and subsequent cyst germination. 

Sediment preparation and cyst identification

The top 6 cm of the sediment core is carefully extruded from the coring tube and stored at 4°C in a sealed container until further examination. Subsamples (approx. 1–2 cm3) of each core sample are mixed with filtered seawater to obtain a watery slurry.  Subsamples (5–10 ml) are sonicated for 2-3 min (Bransonic sonicator) to dislodge detritus particles. The sample is then screened through a 100 µm sieve and collected onto a 20 µm sieve. Subsamples (1 ml) are examined and counted on wet-mount slides, using a compound light microscope. Where possible, a total of at least 100 cysts is counted in each sample.  Identification of species follows Bolch and Hallegraeff (1990) and Sonnemann and Hill (1997). Cysts of suspected toxic species are photographed with a Zeiss Axioplan light microscope using bright field or phase contrast illumination. 

Phytoplankton sampling and culture

Phytoplankton samples are collected by vertical tows of a hand-deployed plankton net (25 cm diam. opening, 20 µm Nytal mesh; Swiss Screens, Melbourne, Vic.). The samples are sealed in plankton jars, placed in a cool container, and returned to the laboratory within 48 hours for light and flourescent microscopic examination.  In the laboratory, net samples are diluted 1:1 with growth medium. Germanium dioxide (10 mg · l-1) is added to inhibit overgrowth by diatom species and these enrichment cultures incubated. Incubations are examined regularly by light microscopy, and single cells of suspected toxic species isolated by micro pipette for further culture and toxicity determination

Trapping

The European shore crab (Carcinus maenas) and other crab (and some fish) species are sampled using light-weight plastic-coated wire-framed traps (60 cm long, 45 cm wide and 20 cm high) covered with 1.27 cm square mesh netting. Entry to the trap is through slits at the apex of inwardly-directed V-shaped panels at each end of the trap. The internal bait bag is baited with pilchards. Traps are weighted with chain and deployed with surface buoys. Whenever possible, traps are deployed in the late afternoon and recovered early the next morning.

Visual searches

Visual searches for crabs and other target species are also made at selected wharves in the port area. Divers swim the length of the wharf, searching structures between the surface and the bottom, to provide a complete visual survey of the outer wharf. Surveys of beach wrack are made on beaches to collect crab exuviae (shedded shells).

Visual searches for the northern Pacific seastar (Asterias amurensis), the Japanese kelp (Undaria pinnatifida) and the European fan worm (Sabella spallanzanii) are carried out by divers in rocky reef and wharf areas, and over soft bottoms.  Divers are free swimming. Diver searches in wharf areas and surveys for Undaria in beach wrack follow procedures described for Carcinus above.

Non Target Species

Wharf pile communites

Piles or projecting steel facings are selected from wharves having different types of shipping activity. Three piles or facings are selected in series from near one end of each wharf, starting about 5 m from the end to reduce “edge” effects, with about 10 m distance separating each pile or facing. Three piles or facings are sampled from all wharves selected for study. The selected piles or facings are marked and their positions recorded and photographed. For each pile divers then take:

(i) video film of the outer surface of the pile/facing from approximately high-water level down to the deepest exposed part of the pile/facing using a Hi-8 video camera recorder (Sony CCD-TR3000E) in an underwater housing (Sony MPK-TRB Handycam Marine Pack). The housing is fitted with twin 20 W (Sony HVL-M20) underwater lights and a distance-measuring rod with a scale and a digital depth meter. The rod ensures that the camera is a constant distance (approx. 50 cm) from the pile or sea floor. The scale and depth meters are positioned so that they fall within the field of view of the camera and provide real-time depth information on the video recording;

(ii) 35 mm still photographs using a Nikonos V underwater camera with a 35 mm lens and a 1:6 overlens and single SB-102 flash to provide higher-resolution records of the fouling communities and selected species; and

(iii) representative quantitative (0.1m² quadrat) samples of the fouling communities present at three depths (0.5, 3.0 and 7.0 m) by scraping attached animals and algae as carefully as possible into plastic bags. These samples are first rough-sorted and then preserved in 5% buffered formalin or ethanol for subsequent sorting and identification in the laboratory.

Breakwater communites

Using equipment detailed in section 3.2.1.1 above, divers take video and still photographs, and collect representative samples of the attached plant and invertebrate communities on breakwater wall substrates.

Soft substrate invertebrates

Visual searches by divers to locate and collect non-target, soft-bottom, epibenthic species are carried out at selected sites as described for target species in sections 3.1.2 and 3.1.3 above. At each wharf sampled, if underwater visibility allows, divers video film a 50 m transect between one of the piles and the outer series of infaunal benthic cores (see section 3.2.2.2 below), along a weighted transect line marked at 1 m intervals.

Divers take infaunal samples using a tubular 0.025 m2 (17.9 cm internal diameter) hand-held corer. The 40 cm deep corer has a pair of handles close to the upper end and is marked externally with grooves at 20 cm and 25 cm from the bottom to indicate the depth to which the core is taken. The upper end of the corer is closed except for a mesh-covered 8 mm diameter hole, which can be sealed with a rubber bung to aid retention of the infaunal sample when the corer is withdrawn from the sediment.

When sampling around wharves, a core is taken within 1 m of the bottom of each outer pile and facing sampled, and a second set of three cores 50 m directly out from the wharf.  For each wharf area sampled this provides three samples close to the wharf (“inner” cores) and three 50 m from the wharf (“outer” cores). When sampling around channel markers or single pylons, three replicate cores are taken 1 m from the base of the pile. Each sample is transferred to a 1 mm mesh bag with drawstring mouth and then sieved underwater, either in situ or after the diver has returned to the surface. The retained material is then washed into a plastic bag and preserved in 5% buffered formalin for subsequent sorting and identification in the laboratory.

Fish

Netting Surveys

Seine nets are used to collect fish (and some mobile invertebrates) from sandy beaches. Seine netting is carried out using a 20m seine with 10mm mesh. All species taken with the seine nets are recorded.

During the Port Kembla survey, rotenone (a fish poison) and clove oil (a fish anaesthetic) were also used to collect fish.  

Temperature and salinity

A temperature/salinity meter is used to record data on water temperature and salinity, usually at 1 m intervals from the surface to near the bottom. Water visibility (turbidity) is measured using a Secchi disk

Appendix 4 - Shipping Information Proforma

Visiting Vessels

1          Origin of vessel entering the port

1.1        international

1.1.1 last international port

1.1.2 last port of call (if any) within Australia

1.2        domestic

1.2.1 last port of call

1.2.2 other ports visited

2            Frequency of visits

2.1        regular service

2.1.1 frequency

2.1.2 duration of service

2.2        occasional visits

2.2.1 frequency

2.2.2 over what period

3            Ballasting

3.1        vessel in ballast during voyage to port

3.2        port where ballast loaded

3.3        ballast water exchanged at sea

3.4        reballasting in or near port

     3.4.1 ballast water discharged; estimated volume discharged

·       at berth

·       within port (not at berth)

·       outside port

   3.4.2 ballast water loaded; estimated volume loaded

·       at berth   

·       within port

·       outside port

·       no reballasting in or near port

4          Hull condition

4.1        level and type of fouling

4.2        date when last slipped and cleaned

4.3        port where last slipped and cleaned

5            Location (berth) in port

6          Turn around time

6.1       average turn-around time

6.2       maximum time in port

Vessels in port for extended periods (dredges, barges, etc.)

1       Type/name of vessel

2        Previous location

2.1        name of port

2.2        duration of stay in that port

3        Duration of stay in port

4        Location (berth or area of operation) in port

5       Destination (if departed)

6        Hull condition

6.1        on arrival

6.1.1 level and type of fouling

6.1.2 date when last slipped and cleaned

6.1.3 not cleaned

6.2        at departure

6.2.1 level and type of fouling

6.2.2 date when last slipped and cleaned

6.2.3          not cleaned

Appendix 5 - Code of Practice for in-water Hull Cleaning and Maintenance

The following Code of Practice for In-water Hull Cleaning and Maintenance was prepared and adopted by the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC 1997). 

Background

1.       In recent years much attention has been focussed on the introduction of exotic marine organisms via ship’s ballast.  Another way of transporting exotic marine organisms is via a ship’s hull

2.       To minimise the risk of further exotic organisms establishing in marine waters, ANZECC in consultation with the Australian Quarantine Inspection Service has established the following Code of Practice for In-water Hull Cleaning and Maintenance.

Application

1.       These requirements shall apply in Australian waters and are applicable to all commercial vessels.

2.       These requirements are to be used with any relevant state environmental protection agency requirements.

Procedures

1.       No part of a vessel’s hull treated with antifoulant is to be cleaned in Australian waters without the written permission of the Harbour Master, local government or state environmental protection agency (administering authority).

2.       In-water hull cleaning is prohibited except under extra-ordinary circumstances, and permission will not normally be granted

3.       The cleaning of sea chests, sea suction grids and other hull apertures may be permitted provided that any debris removed (including encrustation, barnacles, weeds) is not allowed to pass into the water column or fall to the sea bed and subject to any other conditions attached to the permit.  An application seeking permission to carry out this work must be lodged with the administering authority at least five (5) working days prior to commencement of the anticipated start date.  Such application will detail how encrustations, barnacles and other debris will be contained and or collected for disposal as well as the method of disposal.

4.       The polishing of ship’s propellers may be permitted subject to any conditions attached to the permit.  An application seeking permission to carry out “propeller polishing” must be lodged with the administering authority at least five (5) working days prior to commencement of the work.

5.      Applications for permits may be facsimiled to the administering authority.